Protein fibre (Wool)
Wool
is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, angora from rabbits, and other types of wool from camelids.[1]
Wool
has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped, it is elastic, and it grows in staples (clusters).[2] While in the United States the term wool is usually
restricted to describing the fibrous protein derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles in sheep, in the UK the term may be used of any long curling fiber
such as wood wool, wire wool, etc.
Characteristics of Wool fibre:
Crimp
·
Caused by the
unique chemical and physical properties of wool. The fiber tends to bend
and turn in to a resilient 3 dimensional structure. It holds in air to
insulate the wearer. This property makes wool naturally elastic and resilient
causing rapid wrinkle recovery, durability, bulk, loft, warmth, and resistance
to abrasion.
Water
Absorbency
·
Wool can absorb
up to 30% of its weight in moisture without feeling damp or clammy. This
makes wool good for all climates since it aids in the body's cooling mechanisms
to keep moisture away from the skin.
Resistance to
Fire
·
Wool contains
moisture in every fiber allowing it to resist flame without any additional
chemical treatment. The wool will just char and self extinguish.
Dye ability
·
Wool absorbs many
dyes deeply, uniformly, and directly without the use of chemicals. This
characteristic allows wool to achieve very beautiful and rich colors when dyed.
Durability
·
The flexibility
of wool makes it very durable. A single wool fiber can be bent back on
itself more the 20,000 times without breaking. Compare this to the only
3,000 times of cotton and 2,000 times of silk. Its elasticity makes it
very resistant to tearing. Wool also has an outer film making it
resistant to abrasion.
Resilience
Wool
fiber can be stretched up to 50% of its length when dry and up to 30% of its
length when wet without breaking it will return to
its original length when released.
Physical and
Chemical Properties of Wool
Wool
is a protein fiber and it is formed in the skin of sheep and hence it is called
animal fiber. It is produced from different types of sheep all over the world.
Now days, it is a very important textile fiber in the textile sector.
Like
all the textile fibers, Wool has its own physical and
chemical properties which are required to know for better processing in
spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing as well as finishing. Here, I
have written about physical and chemical properties of wool fiber
Physical Properties of Wool: Physical properties of wool fibers
are given below:
1. Color: The color of wool fiber could be
white, near white, brown and black.
2. Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of wool in
dry condition is 1 – 1.7 and 0.8 – 1.6 in wet condition.
3. Elongation at break: Standard elongation is 25 – 35% and
25 – 50% in wet condition.
4. Elastic Recovery: Good
5. Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is 1.3 – 1.32.
6. Moisture Regain (MR %): Standard moisture regain is 16 –
18%.
7. Resiliency: Excellent.
8. Luster: Luster of course fiber is higher
than fine fiber.
9. Effect of Heat: Heat affects the wool fiber
greatly. Wool becomes weak for heat. It softness when heated or treated with
boiling water for long time. At 1300C it decomposes and chars at 3000C.
Wool does not continue to burn when it is remove from a flame.
10.
Effect
of Sun Light:
The main chemical components (keratin) of wool decomposes under the action of
sun light. The sulpher in wool is converted into H2SO4.
The fibers become discolored and develop a harsh feel.
11.
Stored: No problem.
Chemical
Properties of Wool: Wool is a protein fiber and it has
some chemical properties. Chemical properties of the wool fiber are given
below:
1. Effect of
Acids: Wool is
attacked by hot concentrated sulphuric acid and decomposes completely. It is in
general resistant to mineral acids of all strength even at high temperature
though nitric acids tend to cause damage by oxidation. Dilute acids are used
for removing cotton from mixtures of two fibers;
Sulphuric acid is used to remove vegetable matter in the carbonizing process.
2. Effects
of Alkalis: The
chemical nature of wool keratin is such that it is particularly sensitive to
alkaline substances. Wool will dissolve in caustic soda solutions that would
have little effects on cotton. Strong alkaline affect on wool fiber but weak
alkaline does not affect wool.
3. Effect of
Organic Solvent:
Wool does not affect in organic solvents.
4. Effects
of Insects: Wool
affected by insects.
5. Effect of
Micro Organism:
It affected by mildew if it remains wet for long time.
It
is noted that; all the wool fiber is not same in characteristics. It varies
depending on the wool’s country of origin and sheep type.
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PROPERTIES OF WOOLLEN CLOTHING
Wool, one of the oldest textile fibres known, has
survived the test of time because of its unique natural properties. The basic
characteristics wool possessed in the Stone Age era, for instance, are still
the fundamental qualities that make wool unique in this 20th century. Today
there are many other textile fibres, but as yet science has not been able to
produce another fibre containing all the natural properties of wool. Wool
remains unique; a masterpiece of design.
1. Wool Insulates Against
Heat and Cold
Because it absorbs moisture
vapor, wool clothing provides superior comfort in both hot and cold weather.
In cold weather even a little moisture on the skin becomes cold, quickly reducing
body temperature. However, by absorbing body moisture a dry layer of air is
left next the skin and this helps to hold in body heat. In addition the crimp
in the wool fibres makes them stand apart from each other. As a result,
little pockets of still air are trapped between the fibres. This lining of
air trapped inside the fabric acts as an insulator. Still air is one of the
best insulators found in nature.
The absorption/evaporation
process works in hot weather to help keep the body cooler. Evaporation of
perspiration is the body's natural cooling device. Wool helps this process
along. Its thirsty cells absorb body vapours and help reduce skin
temperature. Also, much of the outdoor heat is blocked out because of wool's
insulating barrier of air pockets. This means that the body is kept at an
even temperature.
2. Wool is Healthy
Because wool has the ability to
insulate against heat and cold, it protects against sudden changes of
temperature, and it lets your body breathe. Wool can absorb up to 30 percent
of its own weight in moisture before it becomes really damp. As moisture is
absorbed heat is generated so that the wool remains warm rather than cold and
clammy. After doing strenuous work or playing sport it is a good idea to pull
on a wool jumper as it allows the body to cool down slowly and chills are
prevented.
3. Wool is Water Repellent
While wool can absorb moisture,
it repels liquids. The scales on the outside of the fibre cause liquid to
roll off the surface of the wool fabric. For instance, if you accidentally
spill water on the floor, it is no use trying to mop it up with an old wool
jumper because the wool will not absorb the liquid. Similarly, if you are
caught in a shower or rain, it will take quite some time before the rain
penetrates your wool clothing, and so wool keeps you dry. Even if wool does
eventually get wet it generates heat and keeps you warm, not cold and clammy.
4. Wool is Fire Resistant
Wool is naturally safe. It does
not have to be specially treated to become non-flammable. While it can catch
alight, it will not flare up nor support a flame. Instead of burning freely,
once the flame is removed a cold ash is left which can be brushed away
immediately. Wool does not melt when burned, and so cannot stick to the skin
and cause serious burns. Because of its fire-resistant qualities, wool
blankets, furnishings and carpets in your home are necessary insurance, and
wool for clothing (particularly children) will protect from accidents
associated with fire. Firemen wear wool uniforms, and fire-fighters in rural
areas should always ensure they dress themselves in wool before rushing to
fight a fire.
5. Wool is Elastic
Wool's natural elasticity,
greater than that of any other fibre, makes it comfortable to wear because it
fits the shape of the body. Wool can be twisted, turned and stretched, and
yet it returns to its natural shape. This is why wrinkles disappear from wool
garments when they are rested, and why wool carpets retain their springy pile
for many years. A wool fibre when dry can be extended by about 30 percent.
When wet it will stretch by between 60 and 70 percent. This means that a wool
garment gives freedom of movement, especially important for children's
clothes and sportswear, when ease of movement is all important.
6. Wool Wears Longer
Wool not only wears longer, it
also keeps its good appearance and stays new-looking longer. It doesn't get
shabby in a short space of time. Each wool fibre is made up of millions of
"coiled springs" that stretch and give rather than break, and so
wool is extremely durable. Wool stands up to the stresses and strains of
normal wear because it gives rather than resists friction. The durability and
strength of the coarser wool gives us furnishings materials and carpets which
retain their good appearance for a long time. One of the reasons why so many
people hang on to a favourite old wool garment for so many years is because
it retains its original appearance longer than most other fabrics.
7. Wool is Versatile
Wool fabric, knitwear and
carpets are made from a wide range of wool types varying from extra-fine for
suits and knitwear through to broad fibres which give carpets their strength
and character. This means that wool gives designers endless potential for
their creations - from delicate fabrics to rugged outdoor wear. Wool
technologists have developed an endless number of combinations of weave,
knits and textures, from sheer lacy knits and light airy worsteds to bulky
tweeds and heavy overcoating. Different sheep breeds, each with their own unique
fibre characteristics provide manufacturers with different wools for an even
wider range of products. Blending various wool types in different ways adds
further to wool's versatility. It is small wonder then that wool is found in
products as diverse as paint-rollers and mattresses, carpets and coats,
furnishing fabrics and high-fashion suits, blankets and underwear, curtains
and skiwear, wall paper and tennis ball coverings.
8. Wool Resists Static
Because wool naturally absorbs
moisture from the air, the tendency to collect static electricity is reduced.
Walking across a wool carpet, you are less likely to receive a shock when you
touch a grounded object. Wool garments are much less likely to
"spark" or cling to the body.
9. Wool Insulates Against Noise
As mentioned above wool is a
wonderful insulator against noise. It absorbs sound and reduces noise level
considerably. For this reason wool wallpaper is often used in offices,
restaurants, airport terminals, etc. Wool is also an ideal material used in
such places as concert halls to attain the best acoustics possible.
10. Wool Resists Dirt
Wool resists dirt, retains its
appearance, and stays cleaner longer. Its ability to absorb moisture prevents
a build-up of static electricity and therefore wool does not attract lint and
dust from the air. Furthermore the crimp in the wool fibre and the scales on
the outside of the fibre assist in keeping dirt from penetrating the surface.
The same qualities also make it easier to clean.
11. Wool is Easy to Sew
For the home dressmaker, wool
cuts cleanly, doesn't fray, drapes naturally, doesn't crush with handling and
pins don't mark it. It responds instantly to shaping by iron and steaming and
then holds shape.
12. Wool is Fashionable
Leading designers throughout the
world prefer to use wool - it comes in a wide choice of textures, weaves and
weights, and is suitable for any style required. No fabric drapes like wool
fabric. It is alive, flexible and tailors easily. The soft and easy
"give and take" of the wool fibre keeps garments in shape, prevents
stretching and sagging, and resists wrinkling.
13. Wool Dyes Beautifully
Wool dyes so easily and the
range of colours is limitless. The scales on the surface of the wool fibre
tend to diffuse light giving less reflection and a softer colour. Because
proteins in the core of the fibre are reactive, they can absorb and combine
with a wide variety of dyes. This means that the wool holds its colour well
as the dye becomes part of the fibre.
14. Wool is Comfortable
Wool is so comfortable to wear
because its elasticity means garments fit so well and yield to body movement
it absorbs moisture, allows your body to breathe, yet never feels damp and
clammy. No other fabric serves so well under such a variety of conditions,
nor combines so many natural properties.
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Additional
Characteristics
Wool's scaling and crimp make it easier to spin
the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so they stay
together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other
textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Insulation
works both ways: Bedouins
and Tuaregs
use wool clothes to keep heat out and protect the body.
Felting of wool occurs upon
hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface
of wool fibers hook together.
The amount of crimp corresponds to
the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 100 crimps per inch, while the coarser wools
like karakul
may have as few as one or two. In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no
crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to
breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning,
felting, or carding
into batts
for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland.
Wool fibers are hydrophilic, meaning they readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow.
Wool can absorb moisture almost one-third of its own weight.[4] Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally
a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors,
such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.
Wool ignites at a higher temperature
than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame
spread, a lower rate of heat release, a
lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip;[5] it forms a char which is insulating and self-extinguishing,
and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products
when used in carpets.[6] Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments,
such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for
firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the
likelihood of fire.[6]
Wool is considered by the medical
profession to be hypoallergenic.
Processing
Sheep shearing
is the process by which the woolen fleece of a sheep is cut off. After
shearing, the wool is separated into four main categories: fleece (which makes
up the vast bulk), broken, bellies, and locks. The quality of fleeces is
determined by a technique known as wool
classing, whereby a qualified person called
a wool classer groups wools of similar gradings together to maximize the return
for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia and New
Zealand, before being auctioned, all Merino
fleece wool is objectively measured for micron, yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple
length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor.
Scouring
Wool straight off a sheep, known as
"greasy wool"[7] or "wool in the grease", contains a high level of
valuable lanolin, as well as dirt, dead skin, sweat residue, pesticides, and
vegetable matter. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must
be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as
a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali
and specialized equipment.[8] In North West England
special Potash pits
were constructed to produce Potash
used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white
wool.
In commercial wool, vegetable matter
is often removed by chemical carbonization.[citation needed][1] In less-processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by
hand and some of the lanolin
left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be
worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or
sweaters, such as those of the Aran
Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from
wool is widely used in cosmetic
products such as hand creams.
Quality
Various types and natural colors of
wool, and a picture made from wool
The quality of wool is determined by
its fiber diameter, crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is
the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price.
Merino wool is typically
3–5 inches in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns).[9] The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets.
Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically more coarse, and has
fibers 1.5 to 6 inches (38 to 150 mm) in length. Damage or
breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its
fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.[10]
Wool is also separated into grades
based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns and also its style.
These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For
example:
- <15 -="" .5="" merino="" span="" ultrafine="">[7]
- 15.6–18.5 – Superfine Merino
- 18.6–20 – Fine Merino[7]
- 20.1–23 – Medium Merino
- 23< - Strong Merino[7]
- Comeback: 21–26 microns, white, 90–180 mm long
- Fine crossbred: 27–31 microns, Corriedales, etc.
- Medium crossbred: 32–35 microns
- Downs: 23–34 microns, typically lacks luster and brightness. Examples, Aussiedown, Dorset Horn, Suffolk, etc.[11]
- Coarse crossbred: 36> microns
- Carpet wools: 35–45 microns[7]
Any wool finer than 25 microns can
be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The
finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and
less prone to pilling.
The finest Australian and New
Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP,
which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and
finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and
style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with
the original dictates of British Wool as applied today by the Australian Wool
Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned
every year can be classified and marked
History
1905 illustration of a Tibetan man spinning
wool.
Wild sheep were more hairy than
woolly. Although sheep were domesticated nine to eleven thousand years ago,
archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests that selection for woolly
sheep may have begun around 6000 BC,[13][14] with the earliest woven wool garments having only been
dated to two to three thousand years later.[15] Woolly-sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East
in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, ca. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish
bog.[16]
Prior to invention of
shears—probably in the Iron Age—the
wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather
clothed the European population; the cotton of India was a curiosity that only naturalists had heard
of; and silk, imported along the Silk
Road from China, was an extravagant
luxury. Pliny the Elder
records in his Natural History
that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with a
superior fleece, but which required special care.
In medieval times, as trade
connections expanded, the Champagne
fairs revolved around the production of
wool cloth in small centers such as Provins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant that the
woolens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca,
Spain, and even Constantinople.[17] The wool trade developed into serious business, a generator
of capital. In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of
the Low Countries
and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated, though
Italian production turned to silk in the 16th century.[17] Both pre-industries, based on the export of English raw
wool, were rivaled only by the 15th century sheepwalks of Castile and were a significant source of income to the English
crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great
Custom". The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the
fact that since the 14th century the presiding officer of the House
of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack", a chair stuffed with wool.
Economies of scale were instituted
in the Cistercian
houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early
13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was
baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres
and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of
the Black Death, English textile industries accounted for about 10% of English
wool production;[18] the English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to
the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various
British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in
burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling,
was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration,
fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market,
partly aided by the Navigation
Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade
its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself.
A great deal of the value of woolen
textiles was in the dyeing
and finishing
of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the
manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades,
overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the
"putting-out" system, or "cottage industry", and the Verlagssystem
by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, until recently
perpetuated in the production of Harris
tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw
materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the
product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand
Braudel traces the appearance of the system
in the 13th-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275.[17] The system effectively bypassed the guilds' restrictions.
Before the flowering of the
Renaissance, the Medici
and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking
system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte
della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile
interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco
Datini, the "merchant of Prato",
established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The
sheepwalks of Castile shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the
16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market –
based on sheep of Spanish origin – did not overtake British wool until
comparatively late. The Industrial Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool
cloth manufacturing. Australia's colonial economy was based on sheep raising,
and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845,
furnishing wool for Bradford,
which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production.
A World
War I-era poster sponsored by the United States
Department of Agriculture
encouraging children to raise sheep to provide needed war supplies.
Due to decreasing demand with
increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it
was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a
40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result
has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production
of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.[19][20][21]
Superwash wool (or washable wool)
technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been
specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool
is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales" from the
fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from
attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber
that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining
its shape.[22]
In December 2004, a bale of the
world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for $3,000 per kilogram at
auction in Melbourne,
Victoria. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, 68 mm
long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex[23] strength. The result was A$279,000 for the bale.[24] The finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of 269,000 cents per kilo
during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill
Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield and had a 43 newtons per
kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.[25]
In 2007, a new wool suit was
developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and which dries
off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed
using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool,
such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at
home.[26]
In December 2006, the General
Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year
of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of wool
and other natural fibers.
Production
Global wool production is
approximately 1.3 million tonnes per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia is the leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep. New
Zealand is the second-largest producer of
wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. China is the third-largest producer of wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Tukidale, Drysdale
and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is
usually used for making carpets.
In the United States, Texas, New Mexico,
and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is
the Rambouillet
(or French Merino). There is also a thriving home-flock contingent of
small-scale farmers who raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the
hand spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of
fleece. Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2004/2005[27]
Organic wool is becoming more and
more popular. This wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New
Zealand and Australia.[28] It is becoming easier to find in clothing and other
products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is
environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural
binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues.
Marketing
Australia
About 85% of wool sold in Australia
is sold by open cry auction.[citation needed] 'Sale by
sample' is a method in which a mechanical claw takes a sample from each bale in
a line or lot of wool. These grab samples are bulked, objectively measured, and
a sample of not less than 4 kg is displayed in a box for the buyer to
examine. The Australian Wool
Exchange conducts sales primarily in Sydney, Melbourne,
Newcastle, and Fremantle.
There are about 80 brokers and agents throughout Australia. Wool received by Australian brokers and
dealers (tonnes/quarter) since 1973 Wool buyers' room at a wool auction,
Newcastle, New South Wales.
About 7% of Australian wool is sold
by private treaty on farms or to local wool-handling facilities. This option
gives wool growers benefit from reduced transport, warehousing, and selling costs.
This method is preferred for small lots or mixed butts in order to make savings
on reclassing and testing.
About 5% of Australian wool is sold
over the internet on an electronic offer board.[citation needed] This
option gives wool growers the ability to set firm price targets, reoffer
passed-in wool and offer lots to the market quickly and efficiently. This
method works well for tested lots, as buyers use these results to make a
purchase. About 97% of wool is sold without sample inspection; however, as of
December 2009, 59% of wool listed had been passed in from auction.[citation needed] Growers
through certain brokers can allocate their wool to a sale and at what price
their wool will be reserved.
Sale by tender can achieve
considerable cost savings on wool clips large enough to make it worthwhile for
potential buyers to submit tenders. Some marketing firms sell wool on a
consignment basis, obtaining a fixed percentage as commission.
Forward selling: Some buyers offer a
secure price for forward delivery of wool based on estimated measurements or
the results of previous clips. Prices are quoted at current market rates and
are locked in for the season. Premiums and discounts are added to cover
variations in micron, yield, tensile strength, etc., which are confirmed by
actual test results when available.[citation needed]
Other
countries
The British Wool Marketing Board
operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of
achieving the best possible net returns for farmers.
Less than half of New
Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while
around 45% of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users.[29]
United States
sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but
wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local
market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective
measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool
goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants
and manufacturers.[30]
Yarn
Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart
existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers.[31] As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the
remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be
mixed with raw wool, wool noil,
or another fiber such as cotton
to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West
Yorkshire and created a micro-economy in this
area for many years.
Woolen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting.[31] In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and
warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the
loom.[32]
Uses
In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle
cloths, carpeting, felt,
wool insulation
(also see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used
to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient
Greeks lined their helmets
with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.
Wool has also been traditionally
used to cover cloth diapers.
Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool
fiber is hygroscopic
(attracts water); this makes a wool garment able to cover a wet diaper while
inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly
antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use
felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.
Initial studies of woolen underwear
have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs
the moisture than other fibers.[33]
Merino wool has been used in baby
sleep products such as swaddle
baby wrap blankets and infant sleeping bags.
As an animal protein, it can be used
as a soil fertilizer, being a slow-release source of nitrogen and ready-made amino
acids.
Researchers at the Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology school of
fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and kevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was
lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than kevlar alone.
Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20% of its effectiveness when wet and
therefore required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction
in a vest with 28–30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet
resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone
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