Washing:

Washing is one way of cleaning, namely with water and often some kind of soap or detergent. Washing is an essential part of good hygiene. Soaps and detergents assist in the emulsification of oils and dirt particles so they can be washed away.

Some washing processes which are mostly used in Textile sector are given below:

• Commercial Laundering
• Garment Washing
• Enzyme Washing
• Bleaching
• Fix Wash
• Silicone Wash
• Stone Washing
• Refurbishing

How to Hand Wash Garments

Image by Shune

All clothing and garment materials were not made equally. Some require special care that often calls for hand-washing items instead of placing them in a washing machine. Washing your garments by hand can be an upsetting process if it is one you are totally unfamiliar with. With some coaching and persistence, though, you will learn how to hand-wash garments until they come out cleaner than if you had used your laundry machine.

Instructions:

1.     Step 1

Review the type of garment you have. Most clothing material comes with care instructions that include the temperature of water to be used when washing, as well as drying instructions. Pay attention to these instructions, as not following them can lead to excessive fading or staining of your garments.

2.     Step 2

Gather the proper items. A bucket or deep sink is usually the best vessel to wash your clothes in. If none of these is available, your bathtub will suffice in a pinch. Get soap that conforms to the care of your garments; pay extra attention to bleach additives that are often mixed in with detergents.

3.     Step 3

Pretreat stains on your garments. You can do this simply by applying a small amount of cold, soapy water to heavily stained areas, or using stain treatments like Spray 'n Wash. This will help begin to lift stains before the hand-washing begins, and will also make your job easier in the long run.

4.     Step 4

Prepare the water before you place your garments in it. Focus on the temperature of the water and wash garments of the same color or care method together. Adjust the water temperature by adding hot and cold water as necessary. Fill your tub, bucket or deep sink with just enough water to cover the garments comfortably.

5.     Step 5

Soak your garments before you begin washing. If you cannot soak a garment for a long period of time, pre-treating stains should suffice. The longer you soak your garments, however, the cooler the water will become; so if hot water is necessary for washing, you may want to drain and refill the water to maintain its temperature.

6.     Step 6

Agitate your garments by simply rubbing them against each other, taking care to focus on extremely stained areas. Do not rub so hard that you damage the integrity of the garment. Old washing boards can also be used, as they are made with grooves to rub clothing back and forth. When agitating, intermittently dip the garment back into the soapy water to help remove broken-up dirt and stains. Some garments, such as silks, are more susceptible to damage and should be handled gently during agitation.

7.     Step 7

After you have successfully agitated your garments, dump out or drain all the soapy water. Then refill the vessel with water of the same temperature, but refrain from adding the soap. Soak, agitate and dunk your garment (much as you did when washing) to remove the remaining dirt and soap. You may need to repeat this process to fully remove all soap from some material.

8.     Step 8

Wring out the garment and hang it to dry. You can remove excess water from your hand-washed garment after draining by squeezing it out until drops of water fail to flow easily from it. Twisting the garment usually works best during this process. After you have done this, you can either place your garment on a clothesline in the sun or hang it in a well-ventilated area so the moving air will help dry it.

Washing efficiency

Washing process is characterized by its washing efficiency that is the amount of the compound that is removed divided by the total amount that could have been removed. Washing efficiency is not directly dependent on the amount of water used but is a function of:

• Temperature
• Speed of fabric in the washing range
• The properties of the fabric
• The properties of the washing range

Temperature

The temperature is important in washing because the temperature influences;

a.     The viscosity of water. At a lower viscosity water can better penetrate through the fabric and washing will become more effective.

b.     The affinity of compounds. At a higher temperature the affinity decreases and results in a better washing away of the unwanted components.

c.      Migration of the components from the inner fibre to the water around the fiber. This migration is important for the total time the washing process will take.

Speed of fabric in the washing range

The speed of fabric in the washing range determines the amount of water that is hanged in the fabric by passing a roller in the washing compartment. That is the liquor that was in the fabric before passing the roller with a high concentration of the unwanted components that is replaced by the washing liquor with a low concentration of the unwanted components.

The properties of the fabric

The properties of fabric influence the washing effectiveness by the amount of water that can be pressed through the fabric during washing. The openness of the fabric as well as the openness of yarn determines the length of the way the unwanted component has to migrate to the fluid that can be exchanged in the washing process.  In the washing process generally only very little water from the pores between the fibres is exchanged when the yarns are strongly twisted this will be practically zero. As migration is a very slow process it will take much longer for all the components to be washed out. The same holds more or less for thicker yarns and heavy weight fabrics.

The properties of the washing range

The effectiveness of the washing range is determined by the number of washing tanks, the number of compartments in each tank, the diameter of the roller and the way the fabric is led through the washing range. The washing effectiveness can be improved by placing rollers on top of the top-rollers. This squeeze off the excess water in the fabric and a better exchange of washing liquid will be realized. Also at high speed these top rollers will prevent water to be taken with the fabric to the next compartment.

Water conservation and reuse

Water is expensive to buy, treat, and dispose. If the industry does not have water conservation program, its pouring money downs the drain. Now, water conservation and reuse are rapidly becoming a necessity for textile industry. Water conservation and reuse can have tremendous benefits through decreased costs of purchased water and reduces costs for treatment of wastewaters. Prevention of discharge violations as a result of overload systems can be a significant inducement for water conservation and reuse. By implementing water conservation and reuse programs, the decision to expand the treatment facilities can be placed on hold, and the available funds can then be used for expansion or improvements to process equipment.

The first step in developing a water conservation and reuse program is to conduct a site survey to determine where and how water being used. It would be extremely helpful to develop a spreadsheet and/ or diagram of the water usage with specific details as shown below:

• Location and quantity of water usage.
• Temperature requirements.
• Water quality requirements, i.e. pH, hardness and limitations on solid content, must meet clean water standards, etc.
• Any special process requirements.

Water conservation measures

Water conservation measures lead to:

• Reduction in processing cost.
• Reduction in wastewater treatment cost.
• Reduction in thermal energy consumption.
• Reduction in electrical energy consumption.
• Reduction in pollutants load.

Water conservation significantly reduces effluent volume. A water conservation program can cut water consumption by up to 30 percent or more, and the cost savings can pay for the required materials in a very short time. Since the average plant has a large number of washers, the savings can add up to thousands of rupees per year. Other reasons for large effluent volume is the choice of inefficient washing equipment, excessively long washing circles and use of fresh water at all points of water use.

The equipment used in a water conservation program is relatively inexpensive, consisting in most cases of valves, piping, small pumps, and tanks only. The operating costs for these systems are generally very low. Routine maintenance and, in some cases, electricity for the pumps, would be the major cost components.

The payback period for a water conservation system will vary with the quantity of water saved, sewer fees, and costs for raw water and wastewater treatment. In addition to the direct cost savings, a water conservation program can reduce the capital costs of any required end-of-pipe wastewater treatment system. Personnel from textile industry need to be aware of water conservation potential so they can help their organization realize the benefits.

Water conservation methods for textile mills

Numerous methods have been developed to conserve water at textile mills. Some of the techniques applicable to a wide variety of mills are discussed.

Good Housekeeping

A reduction in water use of 10 to 30 percent can be accomplished by taking strict house keeping measures. A walk through audit can uncover water waste in the form of:

• Hoses left running.
• Broken or missing valves.
• Excessive water use in washing operations.
• Leaks from pipes, valves, and pumps.
• Cooling water or wash boxes left running when machinery is shut down.
• Defective toilets and water coolers.

Good house keeping measures often carried out without significant investments, but leading to substantial cost savings and the saving of water, chemicals and energy. Good house keeping measures are essential for a company, which is critical about its own behaviors. Implementing the following can make significant reductions in water use

• Minimizing leaks and spills.
• Plugging leakages and checks on running taps.
• Installation of water meters or level controllers on major water carrying lines.
• Turn off water when machines are not operating.
• Identifying unnecessary washing of both fabric and equipment.
• Training employees on the importance of water conservation.

Water reuse

Water reuse measures reduce hydraulic loadings to treatment systems by using the same water in more than one process. Water reuse resulting from advanced wastewater treatment (recycle) is not considered an in-plant control, because it does not reduce hydraulic or pollutant loadings on the treatment plant.

Reuse of certain process water elsewhere in mill operations and reuse of uncontaminated cooling water in operations requiring hot water result in significant wastewater discharge reductions. Examples of process water reuse include:

1. Reuse of water jet weaving wastewater

The jet weaving wastewater can be reused within the jet looms. Alternatively, it can be reused in the desizing or scouring process, provided that in-line filters remove fabric impurities and oils.

2. Reuse of bleach bath

Cotton and cotton blend preparation are performed using continuous or batch processes and usually are the largest water consumers in a mill. Continuous processes are much easier to adapt to wastewater recycling/reuse because the waste stream is continuous, shows fairly constant characteristics, and usually is easy to segregate from other waste streams.

Waste stream reuse in a typical bleach unit for polyester/cotton blend and 100 percent cotton fabrics would include recycling j-box and kier drain waste water to saturators, recycling continuous scour wash water to batch scouring, recycling washer water to equipment and facility cleaning, reusing scour rinses for desizing, reusing mercerizes wash water or bleach wash water for scouring.

Preparation chemicals, however, must be selected in such a way that reuse does not create quality problems such as spotting.

Batch scouring and bleaching are less easy to adapt to recycling of waste streams because streams occur intermittently and are not easily segregated. With appropriate holding tanks, however, bleach bath reuse can be practiced in a similar manner to dye bath reuse and several pieces of equipment are now available that has necessary holding tanks.

3. Reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make-up

The rinse water from the final rinse in a batch dyeing operation is fairly clean and can be used directly for further rinsing or to make up subsequent dye baths. Several woven fabric and carpet mills use this rinse water for dye bath make-up.

4. Reuse of soaper wastewater

The coloured wastewater from the soaping operation can be reused at the back grey washer, which does not require water of a very high quality. Alternatively, the wastewater can be used for cleaning floors and equipment in the print and color shop.

5. Reuse of dye liquors

The feasibility of dye liquor reuse depends on the dye used and the shade required on the fabric or yarn as well as the type of process involved. It has already been applied whilst disperse dyeing polyester, reactive dyeing cotton, acid dyeing nylon and basic dyeing acrylic, on a wide variety of machines. However, commission dyeing where the shades required are much more varied and unpredictable would make the reuse of dye liquor difficult. But, given the right conditions dye liquor could be reused up to 10 times before the level of impurities limits further use.

6. Reuse of cooling water

Cooling water that does not come in contact with fabric or process chemicals can be collected and reused directly. Examples include condenser-cooling water, water from water-cooled bearings, heat-exchanger water, and water recovered from cooling rolls, yarn dryers, pressure dyeing machines, and air compressors. This water can be pumped to hot water storage tanks for reuse in operations such as dyeing, bleaching, rinsing and cleaning where heated water is required or used as feeding water for a boiler.

7. Reusing  wash water

The most popular and successful strategy applied for reusing wash water is counter-current washing.

The counter-current washing method is relatively straightforward and inexpensive. For both water and energy savings, counter-current washing is employed frequently on continuous preparation and dye ranges. Clean water enters at the final wash box and flows counter to the movement of the fabric through the wash boxes. With this method the least contaminated water from the final wash is reused for the next-to-last wash and so on until the water reaches the first wash stage, where it is finally discharged. Direct counter-current washing is now generally built into the process flow sheet of new textile mills. It is also easy to implement in existing mills where there is a synchronous processing operation.

Use of automatic shut-off valves

An automatic shut-off valve set to time, level, or temperature controls the flow of water into a process unit. One plant estimated that a reduction in water use of up to 20 percent could be achieved with thermally controlled shut-off valves.

Use of flow control valves

A flow or pressure-reduction valve can significantly reduce the quantity of water used in a wash or clean-up step. These valves are particularly useful in cleaning areas where operators are not always aware of the need for water conservation.

Flocculation of clean water of pigment printing

A rotary screen printer uses as much water as a continuous washing range. All this water is used to wash the belt, to rinse the pipes and pumps and to clean the screens and squeegees. The water does not come in contact with the fabric. When only pigments are used for printing, it is relatively easy to coagulate the pigments and let them settle. The result is the clean water, which can be used for cleaning purposes.

Use single stage of processing

Knitted fabric process combined bleaching/scouring and dyeing giving considerable saving in water. The scouring and bleaching process takes place for 10-20 minutes and without draining the bath the dyeing is carried out without any loss of depth of colour value. In some cases the finishing process can also be carried out along with the dyeing process.

Use of low material to liquor ratio systems

Different types of dyeing machinery use different amounts of water. Low liquor ratio dyeing machines conserve water as well as chemicals and also achieve higher fixation efficiency but the washing efficiency of some types of low liquor ratio dyeing machines, such as jigs, is inherently poor; therefore, a correlation between liquor ratio and total water use is not always exact. Typical liquor ratios for various types of dyeing machines are given below:

Water conservation measures in dyeing equipment

Washing and rinsing are both important for reducing impurity levels in the fabric to pre-determined levels. Water and wastewater treatment prices are increasing, the optimization of water use pays dividends. One possible option is to reduce rinse water use for lighter shades. Here are some successful water reduction projects in batch and continuous operations.

Winch Dyeing: Dropping the dye bath and avoiding overflow rinsing could reduce water consumption reduced by 25%.

High and Low:  Replacing the overflow with Pressure jet dyeing batch wise rinsing can cut water consumption by approximately 50%.

Beam Dyeing: About 60% of water preventing overflows during soaking and rinsing may reduce consumption. Automatic controls proved to be quite economical with a payback period of about four months.

Jig Dyeing: A wide range of reductions ranging from 15% to 79% is possible by switching from the practice of overflow to stepwise rinsing. Rinsing using a spray technique is also effective.

Cheese Dyeing: A reduction of around 70% is possible following intermittent rinsing.

Continuous Operation: A 20%-30% saving was realized by introducing automatic water stops. Counter-current washing proved to be the most effective method. Horizontal washing equipment delivered the same performance as two vertical washing machines, using the same amount of water.

Care Symbol

What Care Symbol and Instructions Mean

Wash

Machine Wash, Normal Garment may be laundered through the use of hottest available water, detergent or soap, agitation, and a machine designed for this purpose.

 

Machine Wash, Cold Initial water temperature should not exceed 30C or 65 to 85F.

 

Machine Wash, Warm Initial water temperature should not exceed 40C or 105F.

 

Machine Wash, Hot Initial water temperature should not exceed 50C or 120F.

 

Machine Wash, Hot Initial water temperature should not exceed 60C or 140F.

 

Machine Wash, Hot Initial water temperature should not exceed 70C or 160F.

 

Machine Wash, Hot Initial water temperature should not exceed 95C or 200F. NOTE: SYSTEM OF DOTS INDICATING TEMPERATURE RANGE IS THE SAME FOR ALL WASH PROCEDURES.

Machine Wash, Permanent Press Garment may be machine laundered only on the setting designed to preserve Permanent Press with cool down or cold rinse prior to reduced spin.

Machine Wash, Gentle or Delicate Garment may be machine laundered only on the setting designed for gentle agitation and/or reduced time for delicate items.

Hand Wash Garment may be laundered through the use of water, detergent or soap and gentle hand manipulation.

Do Not Wash Garment may not be safely laundered by any process. Normally accompanied by Dry Clean instructions.

Bleach

NOTE: All (98+%) washable textiles are safe in some type of bleach. IF BLEACH IS NOT MENTIONED OR REPRESENTED BY A SYMBOL, ANY BLEACH MAY BE USED.

Bleach When Needed Any commercially available bleach product may be used in the laundering process.

Non-Chlorine Bleach When Needed Only a non-chlorine, color-safe bleach may be used in the laundering process. Chlorine bleach may not be used.

Do Not Bleach No bleach product may be used. The garment is not colorfast or structurally able to withstand any bleach.

Dry

Tumble Dry, Normal A machine dryer may be regularly used at the hottest available temperature setting.

Tumble Dry, Normal, Low Heat A machine dryer may be regularly used at a maximum of Low Heat setting.

Tumble Dry, Normal, Medium Heat A machine dryer may be regularly used at a maximum of Medium Heat setting.

Tumble Dry, Normal, High Heat A machine dryer may be regularly used at a High Heat setting.

Tumble Dry, Normal, No Heat A machine dryer may be regularly used only at No Heat or Air Only setting. NOTE: SYSTEM OF DOTS INDICATING TEMPERATURE RANGE IS THE SAME FOR ALL DRY PROCEDURES.

Tumble Dry, Permanent Press A machine dryer may be regularly used only at the Permanent Press setting.

Tumble Dry, Gentle A machine dryer may be regularly used only at the Gentle setting.

Do Not Tumble Dry A machine dryer may not be used. Usually accompanied by an alternate drying method symbol.

Do Not Dry A machine dryer may not be used. Usually accompanied by an alternate drying method symbol.

Line Dry Hang damp garment from line or bar, in or out doors.

Drip Dry Hang dripping wet garment from line or bar, in or out doors, without hand shaping or smoothing.

Dry Flat Lay out horizontally for drying.

Dry In Shade Usually added to Line or Drip Dry. Dry away from direct sunlight.

Wring

Do Not Wring Do Not Wring.

Iron

NOTE: IF IRONING IS NOT A NECESSARY, REGULAR CARE PROCEDURE IT NEED NOT BE MENTIONED.

Iron, Any Temperature, Steam or Dry Regular ironing may be needed and may be performed at any available temperature with or without steam is acceptable.

Iron, Low Regular ironing, steam or dry, may be performed at Low setting (110C, 230F) only.

Iron, Medium Regular ironing, steam or dry, may be performed at Medium setting (150C, 300F).

Iron, High Regular ironing, steam or dry, may be performed at High setting (200C, 290F). NOTE: SYSTEM OF DOTS INDICATING TEMPERATURE RANGE IS THE SAME FOR ALL IRONING PROCEDURES.

Do Not Steam Steam ironing will harm garment, but regular dry ironing at indicated temperature setting is acceptable.

Do Not Iron Item may not be smoothed or finished with an iron.

Dryclean

Dryclean Dry Clean, any solvent, any cycle any moisture, any heat.

Dryclean, Any Solvent Dry Clean, any solvent. Usually used with other restrictions on proper dry cleaning procedure.

Dryclean, Petroleum Solvent Only Dry Clean using only petroleum solvent. Usually used with other restrictions.

Dryclean, Any Solvent Except Trichloroethylene Any dry cleaning solvent other than trichloroethylene may be safely used.

Dryclean, Short Cycle May be used with A, P, or F solvent restriction.

Dryclean, Reduced Moisture May be used with A, P, or F solvent restriction.

Dryclean, Low Heat May be used with A, P, or F solvent restriction.

Dryclean, No Steam May be used with A, P, or F solvent restriction.

Do Not Dryclean Garment may not be commercially drycleaned

 

Enzyme washing:

Enzyme washing is a laundering process which uses enzymes to clean clothing or to finish fabric, especially in the case of jeans and other garments with a worn-in look. Various enzymatic cleaners are available from stores which specialize in laundry supplies, and can also be special ordered. For regular cleaning, enzymes carry numerous economic and environmental benefits. On an industrial scale, enzyme washing has replaced laborious laundering techniques such as stonewashing, saving money and environmental impact for companies.

Acid Washing

Also called a drain & clean, an acid wash becomes necessary if the pool has turned into the "black lagoon". This may occur if the winterizing process is not done properly, or if the pool has been stagnant for a period of time so that algae has taken over. If you notice scaly, man-phibian creatures splashing around out back, it's probably time to drain & clean.

Our general rule of thumb for determining the need for an acid wash is: if you can see the bottom of the pool (the floor) then you can bring it back with chemicals, labor and filtering. If the floor is not visible, the cost of the chemicals and labor will generally be greater than the acid wash charge, and take much, much longer. Also, extensive algae blooms will stain plastered pools, making an acid wash desirable.

An acid wash is, put simply, purposeful stripping of a tiny layer of plaster, exposing fresh plaster beneath. Therefore, it is ill-advised to make it an annual custom, which will accelerate the need for re-plastering. Most plaster coats (sometimes called whitecoat or marcite) are in excess of 1/2", so a few careful acid washes should not hurt.

You may also decide on an acid wash not because of swamp conditions, but just to bring out a brighter, whiter finish. Mineral stains and/or deposits, chlorine stains, even dirt stains...an acid wash is always a dramatic aesthetic improvement.

If your pool has had years of algae blooms, and if your pool seems to grow algae overnight or just bloom very easily....changing the water and acid washing the surfaces algae sticks to can give you an algae free summer.

Acid is a dangerous substance. Pool company personnel are specially trained in its application and wear protective clothing and breathing apparatus during the acid wash. To protect our environment, the acid/water waste should be neutralized  with soda ash prior to its being pumped to a safe location.

If you decide to drain and clean your own pool, make sure that the hydrostatic relief plugs are pulled as soon as possible, and that the water is pumped to a distant location, or into a storm drain. You may also need to check with local water authorities for waste water discharge regulations.

AS you drain the pool, wash it down (scrub if necessary) to remove all algae and leaves. Bag up all leaves and debris in the pool's bottom. When the pool is clean and empty, you can begin to acid wash the plaster. Put on protective clothing and rubber boots, goggles and wear a breathing mask designed for acid fumes.

Add 1 gallon acid to 1 gallon water in a flower watering can (Always add acid to water, never the other way around). Wet down the wall with a hose. Keep the hose(s) running at all times, without a nozzle on it. Pour the acid/water mixture down the wall, from top to bottom, one 10 foot section at a time. Do not allow the acid to sit on the plaster for very long. Usually 30 seconds is long enough. Use an acid brush to scrub the surfaces and move the acid around. Rinse quickly and thoroughly.

Make sure acid is rinsed completely, as it will continue to etch the plaster. Also try to prevent the acid from wearing a channel path from shallow end to deep end. This can create a worn stripe on the floor.

If the 50/ 50 mixture isn't strong enough, you can increase the acid strength or the hang time (before rinsing), or scrub harder. Usually pools are acid washed twice with the same strength mixture. Remember that you don't want to damage or "burn" the plaster.

After the acid wash, the bottom of the pool will be filled with a foamy, acid puddle. This needs to be neutralized before pumping out. Use 2 lbs of soda ash per 1 gallon of acid used. Broadcast the ash over the puddle while stirring with a pool brush on a pole. Use a small submersible pump with a hose to pump out the remaining acid water. Be careful where you pump it to. Even if properly neutralized, it may destroy plants or kill fish, frogs, etc. Rinse the bowl again, and re-pour the bowl of the deep end to clean up well around the drain, being careful not to burn the plaster too much.

Don't rush the job and be safe. The fumes can be very strong, and very dangerous. Be sure to wear a respirator that will block muriatic acid fumes, goggles or safety glasses and protective clothing. Wear old shoes, or rubber boots. Spray off before exiting the pool. Transporting the acid from the store to the house can be hazardous also. Secure the load in the vehicle. Always have a second person nearby when acid washing the pool. If acid drops enter the mouth or eye, rinse with the hose for 15 mins, without a nozzle on it. Acid on the skin won't usually burn too much, just rinse quickly, for 30 seconds.

It is advised that you pay a service company to perform this for you.

If your pool is vinyl lined, acid is not used. Detergents, conditioners and good 'ol elbow grease will remove the "slime". The liner must then be "reset" with a vacuum to ensure proper fit during filling. Liner pools are normally not drained completely if it can be helped. There can be problems getting the liner to reset properly, and there is the rare danger of the walls collapsing.

Complete drain & clean charges average $600. Higher costs may be seen for large amounts of debris in the pool, excessive neglect, or larger sized pools. Lower costs will be realized for clean or empty pools, or localized acid washings. If your water is from a well, you may elect to refill the pool with trucked - in water. Expect to pay about $150 per 5,000 gallons. If you refill from the hose; water costs are a few dollars per thousand gallons. Contact your water authority to let them know you are filling the pool and they may not charge you for the sewer, only the water portion of the bill.

 

Washing Wool Fiber and Textiles

Scouring and Fulling

In the manufacture of textiles, water and soap are two of the most important chemical substances used. It is important that we know and understand what we are trying to accomplish when we start to wet finish a textile product, then select those products to use that will accomplish what we want to do and no more.

In the textile industry, scouring (meaning the washing and cleansing of any fiber, not just wool) is a completely separate step from fulling. Scouring in the true sense of the word in the textile industry means simply removing any foreign material from the fabric; the term scour grew up around the washing of cottons and linens, which in some cases was done at the boil. In the scouring of fiber, we want to remove any foreign material from the fiber so that we can get directly to the fiber for any additional processing we may want to do satisfactorily( it may be Sanforizing, applying repellency, bleaching, dyeing, etc.). Wool is never scoured at the boil, the term was just handy to use. Handweavers, rightly or wrongly, use the term offhandedly. Because of the water and heat involved which causes the wool fiber to swell and get active (uncurl), it is very important to minimize to the greatest degree any agitation. One of the five theories of wool felting (the end product of the term fulling) is that the dimensional change in the wool fiber caused by heat and water is one of the primary contributors to felting.

You can use the same soap to full the fabric (as a lubricant) as you do to scour (as a cleaner). I use Dawn^®, and I have used Synthrapol^®, Ivory^® etc. As long as the pH is 7-9 you are safe and it will do the job. If you are in doubt about the product you are using, use the 800 number on the Label and call the manufacturer. Tell them you want to talk to someone that will give you the pH of the product you are using. In most cases they won't be able to help you but they will give you a number to call that will. All companies producing chemicals must make available on request a statement of the contents. On that sheet the pH will be listed.

In all cases the natural waxes, oils and greases that come with the raw fiber, and any oils the mill uses for lubrication can be broken up and put into solution at some temperature and then kept in solution (emulsified) by the use of a soap so it can be rinsed away. To accomplish this all we need is a soap or detergent that will hold them in suspension after they are broken up. Water hardness is very important(some well water is tough). A water analysis will tell you what it is, then it can be softened with filtering.

Soap versus Detergent

Soap (both dry and wet) is one of the most versatile chemicals used in the mill. As long as they are low alkaline they are fiber friendly. I have been retired from the mills for a few years now but unless some new technology has been developed that I am not aware of there is no such thing as a neutral soap or detergent. All are alkaline to some degree. Neutral is a term used to designate a washed soap, that is, a soap so carefully manufactured that it does not contain an excess of either fat or free alkali.

Soap is a salt of a high molecular weight fatty acid (containing metal). There are only two that are soluble in water, and can be used to make soap, they are sodium and potassium. They are called soft soap. The primary commercial source of high molecular weight fatty acids are animal and vegetable fats and oils. These are treated with sodium hydroxide to produce soap. The removal of byproduct(free alkaline) from the soap is called washing. No matter how carefully the removal process is, the result will still be alkaline enough to turn phenolphthalein red.

Detergents are made by adding builders to soap. For laundry purposes this is done to enhance the product for specific purposes. It may be to whiten the wash or soften the hand or reduce the wrinkles, etc. Builders are also alkaline and apt to increase the pH of the product so care should be taken when using detergents with woolens. When scouring or fulling woolens it is best to choose a soap (or detergent) with a pH of 7-9. Just giving an acid rinse after is not always so simple; unless you know what's happening you may leave the goods with a harsh hand (scratchy). That is one result you do not need with woolens. In many cases, soap or detergent specifically designed for home washing of woolens may be formulated to retard shrinking. When we full woolens we want to encourage shrinking.

In the picker room (or blending room) the various components of the lot are laid out and an emulsion of water and oil is spread throughout the blend to aid in blending of the fiber, to reduce damage going through the machinery and during the drafting processes. In spinning, an oil is fed to the rings to lubricate the travelers during the spinning operation. Some of this finds its way onto the yarn as it is being spun. All machinery is lubricated and some of this finds its way onto the yarn in the process. The yarn is handled by operators at various stages and the oils and waxes from our hands is deposited onto the yarn. For proper fulling (and any further finishing) these need to be removed with a scour prior to fulling, but this is not difficult. These oils and waxes are easily emulsified and are floated away with a mild (pH 7-9) soap. There is no reason to use soap which is highly alkaline unless the cloth got accidentally contaminated with a foreign material during processing that a mild soap will not remove. If this is the case, the person responsible for removing the contamination should know or find out what the origin of the foreign material to be removed is, what the nature of the cleaning agent (chemical and pH) used to remove it is, and how to neutralize the high alkalinity when done. We do not want to end up with a worse situation when we are done. Wool and highly alkaline chemicals (caustic) do not belong in the same room.

In most cases when Greige cloth (just off the loom) is ready to be fulled, the only foreign material that needs to be removed are lubricating oils put in by the mill to aid in drafting during manufacturing (carding and spinning). These oils are designed to be easily removed. In most cases, fiber arrives in the mill picker room clean (scoured). A few mills and some hand spinners spin in the grease. This is the subject for another article.

Soap and detergent act not only as a surfactant to allow water to get into the fibres to break down the surface tension of the water to allow a thorough wetting out of the fiber, but also it provides a lubricant for the scaly fibers to slide over one another during the felting process to reduce fibers damage and give us a much tighter mass of fibers if we want that.

The Five Factors of Felting

When wool fibers are subjected to an alkaline solution with heat, the fibers start to do some peculiar things. It starts to swell and uncurl and the scales open up. When we add the third component of agitation to the mix we then have the stage set for good fulling. In general it is agreed that there is no one factor that causes wool to felt, but rather a combination of a number of factors.

The first and most common is the interlocking of the epidermal scales on the surface of the wool fiber. As the fibers are worked against one another the scales become locked. That is logical but it does not explain why some fiber with good scale profile felts poorly.

The second is creep. Under external stresses the fiber tends to migrate, or travel, towards it's root ends pulling adjacent fibers with them.

The third is that in a low alkaline solution the wool fiber has excellent elongation and recovery properties. The theory is that under certain conditions and with a number of fibers in the same space, the fiber will stretch and recover forming a tighter and tighter mass with its neighbors.

The fourth is the natural twist of the fiber. When placed in water or in a saturated atmosphere the fiber tends to twist and revolve quite rapidly until they come to rest. When that same fiber is placed in a dry atmosphere it wants to return to it's original dry form and will twist and revolve back trying to get there.

The fifth is similar to the fourth but looks at the difference between how the cuticle and cortex of the fiber react under wet conditions. The theory is that the cortex tends to contract more than the cuticle under wet conditions and therefore causes a curl of the fiber that it gives up when dried.

It is felt that all of the above contribute to some degree to the felting quality of the wool fiber. None of the individual theories is the sole factor. For example, the first and most common theory of the scales was disproved when under controlled conditions (white room), a sample of wool fiber was descaled and still had good felting qualities.

We do know that if we stay between the pH 7-9 range with the alkaline solution and apply heat and agitation we will have the best conditions for felting wool.

Washing machine

Front-loading washing machine

A clothes washer, or washer, is a machine designed to wash laundry, such as clothing, towels and sheets. The term is mostly applied only to machines that use water as the primary cleaning solution, as opposed to dry cleaning (which uses alternative cleaning fluids, and is performed by specialist businesses) or even ultrasonic cleaners.

History

Tirreler Bauerntradition shows an early Miele washing machine in the Roscheider Hof, Open Air Museum

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To clean clothing it is necessary to rub and flex the cloth to break apart solids and help the soap penetrate. At first this was done by pounding or rubbing the clothing with rocks in a river, and later developed into the corrugated wash board. In Roman times a person would whiten clothing by rubbing it against a rock while letting soap lay on it. The soap was made of animal fat.

Clothes washer technology developed as a way to reduce the drudgery of this scrubbing and rubbing process by providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest machines were often hand-operated. As electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, these early machines were often operated by a low-speed single-cylinder hit and miss gasoline engine.

Because water usually had to be heated on a fire for washing, the warm soapy water was precious and would be reused over and over, first to wash the least soiled clothing, then to wash progressively dirtier clothing. While the earliest machines were constructed from wood, later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, to keep the water warm throughout the day's washing.

Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. The soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. To help reduce this labour, the wringer/mangle was developed, which uses two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of the clothing. Each piece of clothing would be fed through the wringer separately. The first wringers were hand-operated, but were eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next wash load.

The modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a separate device known as an extractor. A load of washed clothing would be transferred from the wash tub to the extractor basket, and the water spun out.^[1] These early extractors were often dangerous to use since unevenly distributed loads would cause the machine to shake violently. Many efforts have been made to counteract the shaking of unstable loads, first by mounting the spinning basket on a free-floating shock-absorbing frame to absorb minor imbalances, and a bump switch to detect severe movement and stop the machine so that the load can be manually redistributed. Many modern machines are equipped with a sealed ring of liquid that works to counteract any imbalances.

What is now referred to as an automatic washer was at one time referred to as a washer/extractor, which combines the features of these two devices into a single machine, plus also includes the ability to fill and drain water by itself. It is possible to take this a step further, to also merge the automatic washing machine and clothes dryer into a single device, but this is generally uncommon because the drying process tends to use much more energy than using two separate devices; a combined washer/dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also need to dry out the wash chamber itself.

In 2009, the semi-official newspaper of the Holy See, pronounced the washing machine an important milestone in the liberation of women, as it freed them from the drudgery of household chores.^[2]

Modern machines

Modern washing machines are available in two configurations: top loading and front loading.

The top loading design or V-axis clothes washer, most popular in Australia, Canada, the United States and Latin America, places the clothes in a vertically-mounted perforated basket that is contained within a water-retaining tub, with a propeller-like agitator in center of the bottom of the basket. Clothes are loaded through the top of the machine, which is covered with a hinged door. During the wash cycle, the outer tub is filled with water sufficient to suspend the clothing freely in the basket, and the movement of the agitator pulls the clothing downward in the center towards the agitator paddles. The clothing then moves outward and up the sides of the basket to repeat the process. Top-loaders are not well-suited to cleaning large objects such as pillows or sleeping bags due to the tendency for them to just float on the surface of the water without circulating, and the aggressive agitator action can damage delicate fabrics.

In most top loading washers, if the motor spins in one direction, the gearbox drives the agitator; if the motor spins the other way, the gearbox locks the agitator and spins the basket and agitator together. Similarly if the pump motor rotates one way it recirculates the sudsy water; in the other direction it pumps water from the machine during the spin cycle. Because they usually incorporate a gearbox, clutch, crank, etc, top loading washers are mechanically more complex than front loading machines but are generally lower maintenance since there is no need for a door seal (described below).

Arctic BE1200A+ is a front loading budget model sold in 2008 with 6 kg load, LCD indicator, 1200 RPM

The front loading design or H-axis clothes washer, most popular in Europe and the Middle East, mounts the inner basket and outer tub horizontally, and loading is through a door at the front of the machine. The door often but not always contains a window. Agitation is supplied by the back-and-forth rotation of the cylinder and by gravity. The clothes are lifted up by paddles on the inside wall of the drum and then dropped. This motion flexes the weave of the fabric and forces water and detergent solution through the clothes load. Because the wash action does not require the clothing be freely suspended in water, only enough water is needed to moisten the fabric. Because less water is required, front-loaders typically use less soap, and the aggressive dropping and folding action of the tumbling can easily produce large amounts of foam.

Front-loaders control water usage through the surface tension of water, and the capillary wicking action this creates in the fabric weave. A front-loader washer always fills to the same low water level, but a large pile of dry clothing standing in water will soak up the moisture, causing the water level to drop. The washer then refills to maintain the original water level. Because it takes time for this water absorption to occur with a motionless pile of fabric, nearly all front-loaders begin the washing process by slowly tumbling the clothing under the stream of water entering and filling the drum, to rapidly saturate the dry clothes with water.

Front loading washers are mechanically simple compared to top-loaders, with the main motor normally being connected to the drum via a grooved pulley belt and large pulley wheel, without the need for a gearbox, clutch or crank. But front-load washers suffer from their own technical problems, due to the drum lying sideways. For example, a top loading washer keeps water inside the tub merely through the force of gravity pulling down on the water, while a front-loader must tightly seal the door shut with a gasket to prevent dripping water onto the floor during the wash cycle. This access door is locked shut during the entire wash cycle, since opening the door with the machine in use could result in water gushing out onto the floor. For front-loaders without viewing windows on the door, it is possible to accidentally pinch fabric between the door and the drum, resulting in tearing and damage to the pinched clothing during tumbling and spinning.

Nearly all front-loader washers for the consumer market must also use a folded flexible bellows assembly around the door opening, to keep clothing contained inside the basket during the tumbling wash cycle. If this bellows assembly were not used, small articles of clothing such as socks could slip out of the wash basket near the door, and fall down the narrow slot between the outer tub and basket, plugging the drain and possibly jamming rotation of the inner basket. Retrieving lost items from between the outer tub and inner basket can require complete disassembly of the front of the washer and pulling out the entire inner wash basket. Commercial and industrial front-loaders used by businesses (described below) usually do not use the bellows, and instead require all small objects to be placed in a mesh bag to prevent loss near the basket opening.

This bellows assembly around the door is the source of problems for the consumer front-loader. The bellows has a large number of flexible folds to permit the tub to move separately from the door during the high speed extraction cycle. On American machines, these folds can collect lint, dirt, and moisture, resulting in mold and mildew growth and a foul odor. Some front-loading washer operating instructions say the bellows should be wiped down monthly with a strong bleach solution, while others offer a special freshening cycle where the machine is run empty with a strong dosing of bleach. In the past, suggested remedies have included adding vinegar to the laundry detergent, running an empty cycle with bleach every few weeks, wiping the door gasket with a diluted bleach solution every other week, and leaving the front-loading washer door ajar between loads.

A top-loading washer suffers from none of these continued maintenance problems and needs no regular freshening. During the spin cycle, a top-loading tub is free to move about inside the cabinet of the machine, using only a lip around the top of the inner basket and outer tub to keep the spinning water and clothing from spraying out over the edge.

There are many variations of these two general themes. Top loading machines in Asia use impellers instead of agitators. Impellers are similar to agitators except that they do not have the center post extending up in the middle of the wash tub basket. There is also a top loading variant of the horizontal axis design that is loaded from the top, through a small door in the circumference of the drum. These machines usually have a shorter cylinder and are therefore smaller, but offer the efficiency of a front-loader while eliminating the problems of the flexible bellows. This kind of washing machine is sold and popular in Europe, especially in small households, because it offers the same drum system as front loaders, just with a smaller footprint.

Front-loaded machines are ideal for fitted/finished kitchens, since they can be installed under a countertop/worktop. A front loading washing machine, in a fully-fitted kitchen, is often disguised as an ordinary base cabinet/unit. They are also ideal for small homes and apartments with limited space, because the dryer can be installed directly above the washer. They're also more convenient for little people and those with paraplegia, as the controls are front-mounted and the horizontal drum eliminates the need for standing and/or climbing.

Many front loading machines have electrical heating elements to heat the wash bath to near boiling. Chemical action is supplied by the detergent and other laundry chemicals. Front loaders use special detergents that are designed to release different chemical ingredients at different temperatures. This is so that different type of stains and soils will be cleaned from the clothes as the wash water is heated up by the electrical heater. Front loaders also need to use low sudsing detergents because the tumbling action of the drum folds air into the clothes load that can cause over-sudsing. Due to the concentration of water and detergent, though, the sudsing issue of front-loaders can also be controlled by simply using less detergent without lessening cleaning action.

Tests comparing front loading and top loading machines have shown that, in general, front-loaders wash clothes more thoroughly, cause less wear, and use less water and energy than top-loaders. As a result of using less water, they require less detergent to be used, or conversely, they can use the same amount of detergent with less water, which increases detergent concentration and increases the amount of chemical action. They also allow a dryer to be more easily mounted directly above the washer.

Top-loaders have had the advantage that they complete a washing cycle much faster and allow clothes to be removed at intermediate stages of the cycle (for instance, if some clothes within a wash are not to be spun). Many current front-loaders, though, can be stopped and added-to or removed-from because the water level in the horizontal tub is still below the door level. They also tend to be easier to load and unload, since reaching into the tub does not require stooping. Again, this issue can be mitigated due to the offering of risers (usually with storage drawers underneath) to raise the door opening closer to the user's level. The top loader's spin cycle between washing and rinsing allows an extremely simple fabric softener dispenser, which operates passively through centrifugal force and gravity. The same objective must be accomplished by a solenoid-operated valve on a front loader. Another advantage to the top loading design is the reliance on gravity to contain the water, rather than potentially trouble-prone or short-lived front door seals.

Traditionally, top loading machines have tended to be more complex mechanically than front loading washers, because the former generally require a transmission, clutch assembly, and brake to perform the wash/spin cycle. However, the electro-mechanical components in conventional top-load washers have largely reached maturity. In contrast, complications caused by higher-speed drum rotation on consumer-level front-load machines, combined with the addition of electronic circuit boards, control touchpads, and various sensors has significantly impacted frequency-of-repair and expected service life.

Rinsing

Washing machines perform several rinses after the main wash to remove most of the detergent. Modern washing machines use less water due to environmental concerns, however this has led to the problem of poor rinsing on many washing machines on the market,^[13] which can be a problem to people who are sensitive to detergents. The Allergy UK website suggests re-running the rinse cycle again.^[14]

Maintenance wash

Washing machine manufacturers are now advising users to perform a regular maintenance wash which cleans the inside of the washing machine. A maintenance wash is performed without any laundry on the hottest wash programme,^[15] using either one of the following: white vinegar, a detergent with bleaching properties (it's not advisable to put actual bleach inside the washing machine!) or you could use a proprietary washing machine cleaner. The purpose of a maintenance wash is to remove any mould, bacteria, old detergent residue and gunge. If using white vinegar, it's important to allow the washing machine to fill for about 30 seconds before adding the vinegar, as the first bit of water goes into the sump.^[16]

Front- and top-loader comparisons

Some top-loader advocates have argued that a top-loader leans more towards efficiency with dramatically faster wash times, although comparisons of energy use show this to be wrong -- front loaders generally use less energy, water and detergent and clean almost as effectively as the best top loaders.^[17] Newer U.S. top loaders (manufactured in the US after 2007) however come out poorly since new regulations have reduced the amount of energy they consume, which has resulted in shortened cycles and less effective cleaning. Front loaders do tend to have longer cycle times but lean toward lower overall energy consumption (especially hot washes) by virtue of dramatically lower amounts of water and less detergent required.

Consumer

Feature	Top Loading Washer	Front Loading Washer
European Market Share	10%**	90%
US Market Share	65%	35%

In the United States, top-loading machines are the most commonly used. However, in Europe the front-loading style is preferred. A factor in the preference for front-loaders in Europe is the preference for integrated appliances that sit under countertops in kitchens and utility rooms or that can be fully integrated and concealed in kitchen cabinetry. Also, because the first mass marketed automatic washing machines sold from the 1950s onwards in Europe were almost exclusively front loaders European consumers tended to associate top loaders with labour intensive obsolete technology. European households also tend to pay more attention to water and energy conservation as heavy environmental taxes are levied on both water and energy use. Front loading machines also offer much higher spin drying speeds of up to 2000 RPM. This makes it possible to dry clothes very quickly by hanging them on washing lines or airing racks or can substantially reduce the length of time required in a tumble dryer. The EU also has a comprehensive energy efficiency, wash performance and spin dry performance labelling system which rates major appliance performance from A to G. This has driven consumers away from inefficient machines as they will generally try to buy A rated appliances. For example a "Triple A" (AAA) rated machine = Lowest Energy Consumption, Best Wash and Best Water Extraction (Spin) performance.

It should also be noted that while 10% of European washing machines may be top loading they are not of the same design as North American machines. Rather than washing the clothes with an agitator, they also use a horizontally mounted drum. The clothes are loaded through a hatch in the drum wall. Their design is mechanically identical to that of a front loader. These machines are particularly popular for small apartments as they take up less floor space than a conventional front loader and for historical marketing reasons are more popular in certain EU countries. For example they are quite commonly found in French houses while they're practically unheard of in the UK and Republic of Ireland.^{[citation needed]}

Usage

Front-loaders feature a washing style that requires less water than a top-loader and today's front-loaders achieve much better washing results while treating the garments more gently. Front-loaders offer quick programs which are in the same time range as top-loader cycles.

Commercial washing machine

Commercial washing machines in a self-service laundromat

A commercial washing machine is intended for more frequent and long-term usage than a consumer washing machine. Because function is more important than style, most commercial washers have a sharp-edged square appearance, often with stainless steel exteriors to minimize rust and corrosion in a constantly moist environment. They are built with large easy-to-open service covers, and the washer mechanisms are internally laid out in a manner that does not require access to the underside of the unit for service. Often commercial washers are installed in long rows with a wide access passageway behind all the machines to allow maintenance without moving the heavy machine.

Many commercial washers are built for use by the general public, and are installed in publicly accessible laundromats or laundrettes, operated by money accepting devices or card readers. The features of a commercial laundromat washer are more limited than a consumer washer, offering just two or three basic wash types plus an option to choose wash cycle temperatures. The common front-loading commercial washing machine also differs from consumer models in its expulsion of wash and rinse water. While the consumer models pump used water out allowing the waste line to be located above the washer, front loading, commercial machines generally use gravity to expel used water. A drain in the rear, at the bottom of the machine opens at the appointed time during the cycle and water flows out. This creates the need for a trough behind machines which leads to a filter and drain. the trough is usually part of a cement platform built for the purpose of raising the machines and can be seen behind washers at most laundromats.

Commercial washers for business (still often referred to as a washer/extractor) can include extra features that are never seen in the consumer market. Many commercial washers offer an option for automatic chemical injection of five or more different chemical types, so that the operator does not have to deal with constantly measuring out soap products and fabric softeners for each load. Instead a precise metering system draws the detergents and wash additives directly from large liquid-chemical storage barrels and injects them as needed into the various wash and rinse cycles.

Some computer-controlled commercial washers offer the operator complete control over the various wash and rinse cycles, allowing the operator to program custom washing cycles.

One special type of continuous-processing washer is known as the tunnel washer which does not have separate, distinct wash or rinse cycles, but combines them all in sequence inside a single long large-diameter rotating tube.

Industrial washing machines

A 1980s Belgian 180kg load industrial washer in Hotel Hilton, Brussels

A 1980s Belgian 90kg load industrial washer.

An industrial clothes washer can be used to batch process up to 300 pounds (140 kg) of textiles at once, and can be used for extremely machine-abusive washing tasks such as stone washing or fabric bleaching and dyeing.

An industrial washer can be mounted on heavy shock absorbers and attached to a concrete floor so that it can extract water from even the most severely out-of-balance and heavy wash loads. It may be mounted on hydraulic cylinders, permitting the entire washer to be lifted and tilted so that fabrics can be automatically dumped from the wash drum onto a conveyor belt once the cycle is complete.

Washing machine manufacturers

• Alliance Laundry (Speed Queen)
• Antonio Merloni under the brand names Asko, Ardo, Philco and Servis
• Arçelik - including the brand names Beko, Blomberg and Altus
• Bosch - including the brand names Siemens, Neff and Constructa
• Candy - including the brand name Hoover and Zerowatt
• Continental Girbau
• Dyson (No longer produced)
• Electrolux - including the brand names AEG, Frigidaire, Tricity Bendix and Zanussi
• Fagor - including the brand name Brandt
• Fisher & Paykel
• Girbau
• IFB
• GE
• Haier
• Hitachi
• Indesit - including the brand names Ariston, Creda, Hotpoint and Scholtes
• LG
• Miele
• Samsung
• SMEG
• Staber
• Whirlpool - including the brand names Admiral, Amana, Kenmore, Maytag, Magic Chef and Roper